Religion and Faith as Instrument of Hope Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Religion and Faith as Instrument of Hope - Essay Example I will make your load easier to carry. Come near me and you shall have rest (The Holy Bible, New International Version, p.539). Truly the heavy load gets lighter, out of the blue, a solution to a problem just appears and help from friends keep on coming. But those are possible only when you have faith. Because the solution that came isn’t the one you’re asking. With faith, you’ll realize that there’s One who knows what’s better for you. This happens not more of a Divine cooperation but usually with God’s intervention answering your prayers. But that holds true only when you pray, because prayer indicates the presence of faith. Faith can grow through constant prayers. We must have faith to keeps us strong. Through faith, we can easily understand and hurdle life’s difficulties. When we cannot anymore comprehend what is going on, there should be something aside from the intellect that will explain. And that’s faith. Where reason ends, faith begins. ... Tolerating Grossbart would be a way of going against the principle of being a defender of faith. Even Jesus Christ became furious when he entered the temple and saw the place becoming a venue for businesses. He upturned the tables being used by the moneychangers and the places of dove sellers and He drove the traders. He claimed "The Scripture says that this temple should be used for praying, but you are using it as "place for thieves"(The Holy Bible, New International Version, p.546). A defender of faith naturally possesses a very strong faith that is acquired and develops through years of practicing the religion. Religion doesn't promise an easy life, a bed of roses so to speak. But no matter how difficult life is, a person with real faith will not be overwhelmed by it. He knows the Lord up there helps him carry the load. He is too much aware that God will not give him a problem that is too difficult that he cannot bear. In every problem that God gives, there is always a corresponding solution. Every problem that is solved greatly contributes to the growth of faith. To be a defender of faith, one can learn many lessons from the Bible. Of course, Bible is a Christians' Book of Life. A Model of Christian Charity People in different countries and places have different status in life. There is a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Some people belong to very influential and well-to-do families while others live an average life and are obedient to the powers that be. What could be the reason for this Perhaps it is God's wisdom that different people live differently. The Model of Christianity has the following reasons: So that beauty can be appreciated more by seeing the opposite and so that man can be grateful to his

Role of Education in Society Essay Example for Free

Role of Education in Society Essay Society has certain requirements which must be met if it’s to survive; hence the role of education in society is examined in terms of how it helps to meet those needs. Firstly, society needs a certain degree of social solidarity or unity. People must feel a sense of belonging to society and a sense of loyalty to the social group. Common norms and values provide this. Secondly, every society requires a system for socializing new members. In an industrial society in which occupational status is largely achieved, young people must learn to value individual achievement. Thirdly, every society requires a system for placing people in roles best suited to their talents and abilities. This is particularly true in industrial society with a specialised division of labour. The right people must be matched with the right jobs. Lastly, for society to operate efficiently and effectively, its members must possess the necessary skills to perform essential tasks. (Harambos et al, 1986) Education attempts to develop the personality of the pupil and prepare him for membership into society. This function corresponds to the double role a person has to play in life, both as an individual and as a member of society. Schools in western societies emphasize individual achievement. The student achieves his/ her status based on their ability, talent, determination and effort. Achievement is measured by the student’s performance in examinations. Education can be seen as a system for sifting, sorting and grading people in terms of their ability. Students leave school having been thoroughly tested. In theory, the most talented will achieve the highest qualifications; the least talented will come away with little or nothing to show for their efforts (Harambos et al, 1986) The vision for the Ministry of Education, Science, Vocation Training and Early Education (MESVTEE) is â€Å"to guide the provision of education for all Zambians so that they are able to pursue knowledge and skills, manifest excellence in performance and moral uprightness, defend democratic ideals and accept and value other persons on the basis of their personal worth and dignity, irrespective of gender, religion, ethnic or any other discriminatory characteristic (Ministry of Education, 2000) The Ministry of Education emphasizes that the child is placed at the center of the entire education process which exists solely for the sake of the learner. It also recognizes that each child is unique. This contributes a rich diversity to the whole education system. The aim of school education is to promote the full and ell rounded development of the physical, intellectual, social, effective, moral and spiritual qualities of all pupils so that each can in turn develop into a complete person, for his/ her personal fulfilment and the good of society (Ministry of Education, 1996) The education system in Zambia is divided into four major parts. These parts include lower and middle basic school; upper basic school; high school; and higher education. The education system for the lower and middle basic levels is concerned with the pupils’ complete needs: those of the body, mind, affective, social; moral and spiritual needs. The system at this stage allows for adaptation of some aspects of the curriculum to match local needs and circumstances. This stage provides pupils with a substantial and recognizable preparation for life. Ministry of Education, 1996) The upper basic system builds on the foundation laid at the lower levels, though the programme of activities is just broadened and balanced to allow for treatment at an in-depth appropriate for the level of education, age and experience of the pupils. Education at this level includes issues like Education for democracy, which allows these young Zambians to acquire an understanding of the values that have shaped society and the practices that have preserved it; literacy and numeracy which allows them to read and write correctly, clearly and confidently in both their Zambian language and in English, and to acquire basic numeracy and problem solving skills for them to function effectively in society; science and technology helps the pupils develop processes of scientific thinking. This ability to think scientifically and understand scientific processes has become a condition for survival in society; practical and technical subjects provide compensation for traditional knowledge and practical skills that students would have acquired if they had not been attending school. They also provide a way of experiencing and dealing with the physical world. (Ministry of Education, 1996) Since upper basic education may be the only formal education the majority of pupils will likely get, the basic education system should adequately prepare the pupils for life after school; hence issues such as health and personal well being, Sexuality and personal relationships are tackled at this level. This is coupled with helping the students to develop socially acceptable habits. In these studies, effort is complemented by the home, community and society at large. This enables the pupils shape for themselves their own personal philosophy of life, by internalizing and adopting their own set of values and attitudes which would direct their own lives. (Ottaway, 1962) Performing and creative arts helps the pupils develop knowledge of and a deeper appreciation for Zambia’s rich cultural heritage and thereby contribute to the preservation and development of this heritage. Co-curricular activities also help pupils develop life skills which equip them with positive social behaviour and coping with negative pressure. High school builds on the foundation laid in upper basic school. High school aims at the integrated and comprehensive development of each pupil’s potential, enabling the pupil adopt adult life and make a useful contribution to society. It also develops the intellectual skills and qualities, foster creativity, imagination resourcefulness and innovativeness and provide occasion for their practical exercise. It also promotes extensive knowledge, exact skills and accurate understanding of areas of study. (Ministry of Education, 1996) When progressing from one level of the education system to the next, evaluation and assessments are conducted. This is in order to determine whether the education system is achieving its objectives, and that it is producing the right caliber of graduates expected by society. Society’s interest is on the public exams that mark the end of one stage of education and serve as a selection instrument for the next stage. (Ministry of Education, 1977) In conclusion, the education system in Zambia is inclined towards the new sociology of education because emphasis is placed on the individual development of the pupil’s potential. Throughout the whole progression from lower basic to high school, focus is placed on the development of the pupil’s skills individually. Pupils therefore develop knowledge of and a deeper appreciation for Zambia’s rich cultural heritage and thereby contribute to the preservation and development of this heritage throughout the whole education system.

Brave new world essay :: essays research papers

New?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World illustrates a colorful, fantastic universe of sex and emotion, programming and fascism that has a powerful draw in a happy handicap. This reality pause button is called â€Å"Soma†. â€Å"Take a holiday from reality whenever you like, and come back without so much as a headache or a mythology.† ( Huxley 54 ).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In his universe, Soma is the cure for everything. All problems, be they psychological, physical, or social are totally forgotten, their lurking shadows temporarily banished from sight. What is worrisome about this futuristic fabrication is its ideal reality. People in our current and very non-fictional times are taking steps toward the world of massive Soma use and acceptation. When one stops, and sees the world today, Huxley’s idea of the common drug; cure all, pleasant, and religion-exterminating seems to be a reasonable estimation of our future developments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Drugs are used to escape the real and move into the surreal world of one’s own imaginations, where the pain is gone and one believes one can be happy. People look on their life, their world, their own reality, and feel sickened by the uncaringly blunt vision. Those too weak to stand up to this hard life seek their escape. They believe this escape may be found in chemicals that can alter the mind, placing a delusional peace in the place of their own depression: â€Å"Euphoric, narcotic, pleasantly halucinant,† (52). They do this with alcohol, acid, crack, cocaine, heroine, opium, even marijuana for the commoner economy. These people would rather hide behind the haze than deal with real problems. â€Å"...A gramme is better than a damn.† (55).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This becomes such common practice that many times the addiction is more than physical, but emotional need sets in. Why should one suffer the pain of life when it takes so little to escape them? â€Å"One cubic centimeter cures ten gloomy sentiments,† (54). It is found to be too easy to avoid all of their problems with one little pill, vial, needle, blotter, leaf, or bottle. The drug seems to be the easiest way, the path of least resistance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This practice is widespread; any population the fits today’s guidelines of â€Å"civilization† has some kind of drug that provides the escape route, if not a variety of them. The idea of drug induced escape is so ground in that medical professions give in to it today. Psychiatrists are capable of prescribing drugs that soothe the mind, and ease the pain in the troubled patient.

Karl Marxs Estranged Labor Essay example -- essays research papers fc

Karl Marx's Estranged Labor In Karl Marx's early writing on "estranged labor" there is a clear and prevailing focus on the plight of the laborer. Marx's writing on estranged labor is an attempt to draw a stark distinction between property owners and workers. In the writing Marx argues that the worker becomes estranged from his labor because he is not the recipient of the product he creates. As a result labor is objectified, that is labor becomes the object of mans existence. As labor is objectified man becomes disillusioned and enslaved. Marx argues that man becomes to be viewed as a commodity worth only the labor he creates and man is further reduced to a subsisting animal void of any capacity of freedom except the will to labor. For Marx this all leads to the emergence of private property, the enemy of the proletariat. In fact Marx's writing on estranged labor is a repudiation of private property- a warning of how private property enslaves the worker. This writing on estranged labor is an obvious point of basis for Marx's Communist Manifesto. The purpose of this paper is to view Marx's concept of alienation (estranged labor) and how it limits freedom. For Marx man's freedom is relinquished or in fact wrested from his true nature once he becomes a laborer. This process is thoroughly explained throughout Estranged Labor. This study will reveal this process and argue it's validity. Appendant to this study on alienation there will be a micro-study which will attempt to ascertain Marx's view of freedom (i.e. positive or negative). The study on alienation in conjunction with the micro-study on Marx's view of freedom will help not only reveal why Marx feels labor limits mans freedom, but it will also identify exactly what kind of freedom is being limited. Karl Marx identifies estranged labor as labor alien to man. Marx explains the condition of estranged labor as the result of man participating in an institution alien to his nature. It is my interpretation that man is alienated from his labor because he is not the reaper of what he sows. Because he is never the recipient of his efforts the laborer lacks identity with what he creates. For Marx then labor is "alien to the worker...[and]...does not belong to his essential being." Marx identifies two expla... ...gative liberty. He states "...[private] property is...the right to enjoy ones fortune and dispose of it as one will; without regard for other men and independently of society." Private property for Marx is the mechanism by which man can be separate from other men and pursue his (negative) liberty. Marx's writings on estranged labor and in The Communist Manifesto are a clear repudiation of private property. What can be deduced then is that Marx does not favor negative liberties. Negative liberties require private property to exist and private property is for Marx the enslaver of the proletariat. With negative freedom eliminated from the discussion we are left with Positive or prescribed freedoms. Positive freedom, as was identified above, is the freedom to pursue specified options. That is, freedom to do certain things. Man is not necessarily given a choice of what these options are, he is simply free to pursue them whatever they may be. Positive freedoms then are the freedoms Marx likely wishes to uphold by denouncing estranged labor.Bibliography Bibliography 1Marx, Karl, The Early Marx, 2Marx, Karl and Engles, Freidrich, The Communist Manifesto, London, England, 1888

The Fashion Channel HBS Case Notes

Introduction The protagonist of this case is Dana Wheeler who is the senior vice president of marketing for TFH She was looking into preparing a new Segmentation and Positioning Strategy If her boss liked what he heard then they would move forward with a 60 million dollar MIMIC campaign utilizing national advertising, promotion, and public relations.This was an increase of 15 million dollars from last year. Background TFH was a successful cable network that was the only one who broadcasted up-to- date news about fashion 24 hours a day, 7 days a week It was founded in 1996 It has had consistent and constant growth since the beginning, revenue was projected to grow to 310 million dollars in 2006 marking another steady year of growth.The channel was one of the most widely available niche networks reaching 80 million US households (this number represents the number of people who had TFH in their package not those watching it) Women between 34 and 54 years were its most avid viewer accord ing to its annual demographic survey Beyond basic demographics the network had no other information on its viewers Nor did it attempt to market to any viewer segments in particular Early on the network had chosen a something for everyone† type of strategy in its programming and advertising TFH has clearly grown quickly despite it lack of targeted marketing, however at the beginning of 2006 TFH had realized that other networks were taking note of its success Some of its biggest competitors became Lifetime and CNN who had added fashion programming to their lineup This is what prompted Tech's CEO to want to change up TFH marketing and be more strategic with their marketing, this is why they hired Dana who extensive experience with marketing packaged consumer goods as well as broad experience in advertising.Tech's CEO and other executives felt some urge to resist change and didn't want to â€Å"fix what wasn't broken† Wheeler's Plans Frazier (senior up of ad sales) had warn ed that TFH would need to drop the price of a unit of advertising by 10 % if changes weren't made in Tech's performance He mentioned that CNN and Lifetime's fashion shows were achieving notable ratings (EXHIBIT 1) Frazier was a great salesman and was Justifiably worried about sales Wheeler knew that in order to hold or increase the price it would be crucial to attract a critical mass of viewers who were interested in the network's content and were attractive to advertisers The key would be targeting the right viewers and offering advertiser an attractive mix of viewers when compared to their competitors BUT if she changed the network's offering in a way that disappointed too many consumers it could risk losing its distribution support Her plan was to build a strategy for segmentation and use it as a base to employ all marketing tools at her disposal, traditional/internet ads, PR and promotions to reach targeted consumers Everyone felt that advertising was TFH primary growth opportun ity. Tiff's Advertising Revenue Model TFH was on target to generate 230. Million dollars in 2006 from advertising The advertising business model was built on attracting a mix of male and female viewers on a regular basis – think â€Å"something for everyone† strategy Tuft average rating was 1. 0 with 110 million households or 1. 1 million people people watching at any given time.The ad sales team sold access to viewers through 30 to 60 second spots to a variety of advertisers which included automobile manufacturers, clothes companies, and cosmetic companies There were usually 6 minutes of advertising per 30 minutes of programming (20 percent); 24 hours per day; for a total of 2016 minutes per week In 2006 industry data showed that advertisers spent 20 billion dollars on advertising in cable industry, however there were over a hundred networks competing for these dollars which made competition fierce. TFH was the only dedicated fashion network If CNN and Lifetime are su ccessful more channels may copy them creating more competition for TFH The network based ad unit prices on several factors The number of viewers (ratings) The audience characteristics (demographics and lifestyle)Both of the are hurting ad sales and hurting Tech's CPM TFH was facing additional competitive challenges in its attractiveness to cable affiliates. On a scale of 1 to 5 TFH achieved a 3. 8 whereas fashion programming on CNN scored a 4. 3 while Lifetime scored a 4. 5 On awareness TFH scored 4. 1; CNN 4. 6; and Lifetime 4. 5 On perceived value TFH scored 3. 7; CNN 4. 1; and Lifetime 4. Memo's use the aforementioned data to determine Affiliate Fees and which package to offer TFH in. If TFH continues to underperformed it may be offered in less appealing packages making it seen in even fewer households, ruining its prospects of revenue growth or even survival.The Data strongly indicates that change in programming need to happen so that TFH can increase consumer interest, awarenes s, and perceived value This change could result in upsetting some of the existing loyal viewers The Management team had been with TFH for years and experienced large amount of their growth arguing safe marketing strategies where Wheeler is asking them to take a risk. Attitudinal Research Findings The Following Data can be found in Exhibit 2 and Exhibit 3 There are four unique groups of viewers Factionists Planners & Shoppers Sustainability Basics While the segments varied in size, Wheeler quickly noticed that the smallest -The Factionists- had a high degree of interest in fashion Most of the male interest occurred in the Basics cluster- the least likely to be engaged with TFH content. Factionists, Planners, and Sustainability all had cluster of women between the ages 18 to 34, the premium demographic.By investing in a major marketing/advertising campaign it would be reasonable to expect that awareness and viewing of the channel would go up This could deliver a ratings boost of 20% a nd would take the rating from 1. 0 to 1. 2 If the current audience mix stayed the same, ad sales were predicting a ten percent drop to $1. 80 Wheelers Preferred Strategy Targeting Factionist's, Shoppers/Planners, and Situational All segments mentioned have clusters of the desired age group but both Planners and Situational are made up of older women their existing audience and they would all be targeted It is likely to assume that ratings would increase from 1. 0 to 1. No clear data is given about CPM No clear data is given about the increase in cost of programming Alternative Strategies Focusing on Factionists This segment was strong in the highly valued 18-34 female demographic It was smaller that other segments representPrimarily targeting Men Pursue a desirable demographic as men of all ages are a premium demographic No data on ratings No data on CPM No data on Programming costs, however it would be likely to assume that costs would pike as all current programming is geared to s lightly older women (their current primary demographic) They would likely and very quickly lose all of their current audience due to shift in programming for a demographic that they are unsure they can even secure. High short-term risk as all current audience will be lost and could result in ratings loss and being taken off the basic cable package Long-term if this strategy is successful, men could be a larger audience than women as more age groups are desired by advertisers. This could result in greater affiliate fees and ad sales.

The Persian Empire of Ancient Iran

The Persian Empire of Ancient Iran Irans history as a nation of people speaking an Indo-European language did not begin until the middle of the second millennium B.C. Before then, Iran was occupied by peoples with a variety of cultures. There are numerous artifacts attesting to settled agriculture, permanent sun-dried- brick dwellings, and pottery-making from the sixth millennium B.C. The most advanced area technologically was ancient Susiana, present-day Khuzestan Province. By the fourth millennium, the inhabitants of Susiana, the Elamites, were using semipictographic writing, probably learned from the highly advanced civilization of Sumer in Mesopotamia (ancient name for much of the area now known as Iraq), to the west. Sumerian influence in art, literature, and religion also became particularly strong when the Elamites were occupied by, or at least came under the domination of, two Mesopotamian cultures, those of Akkad and Ur, during the middle of the third millennium. By 2000 B.C. the Elamites had become sufficiently unified to destroy the city of Ur. Elamite civilization developed rapidly from that point, and, by the fourteenth century B.C., its art was at its most impressive. Immigration of the Medes and the Persians Small groups of nomadic, horse-riding peoples speaking Indo-European languages began moving into the Iranian cultural area from Central Asia near the end of the second millennium B.C. Population pressures, overgrazing in their home area, and hostile neighbors may have prompted these migrations. Some of the groups settled in eastern Iran, but others, those who were to leave significant historical records, pushed farther west toward the Zagros Mountains. Three major groups are identifiablethe Scythians, the Medes (the Amadai or Mada), and the Persians (also known as the Parsua or Parsa). The Scythians established themselves in the northern Zagros Mountains and clung to a seminomadic existence in which raiding was the chief form of economic enterprise. The Medes settled over a huge area, reaching as far as modern Tabriz in the north and Esfahan in the south. They had their capital at Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan) and annually paid tribute to the Assyrians. The Persians were established in three areas: to the south of Lake Urmia (the tradional name, also cited as Lake Orumiyeh, to which it has reverted after being called Lake Rezaiyeh under the Pahlavis), on the northern border of the kingdom of the Elamites; and in the environs of modern Shiraz, which would be their eventual settling place and to which they would give the name Parsa (what is roughly present-day Fars Province). During the seventh century B.C., the Persians were led by Hakamanish (Achaemenes, in Greek), ancestor of the Achaemenid dynasty. A descendant, Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great or Cyrus the Elder), led the combined forces of the Medes and the Persians to establish the most extensive empire known in the ancient world. By 546 B.C., Cyrus had defeated Croesus*, the Lydian king of fabled wealth, and had secured control of the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, Armenia, and the  Greek colonies  along the Levant. Moving east, he took Parthia (land of the Arsacids, not to be confused with Parsa, which was to the southwest), Chorasmis, and Bactria. He besieged and captured Babylon in 539 and released the Jews who had been held captive there, thus earning his immortalization in the Book of Isaiah. When he died in 529**, Cyruss kingdom extended as far east as the Hindu Kush in present-day Afghanistan. His successors were less successful. Cyruss unstable son, Cambyses II, conquered Egypt but later committed suicide during a revolt led by a priest, Gaumata, who usurped the throne until overthrown in 522 by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenid family, Darius I (also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). Darius attacked the Greek mainland, which had supported rebellious Greek colonies under his aegis, but as a result of his defeat at the  Battle of Marathon in 490  was forced to retract the limits of the empire to  Asia Minor. The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus and Darius who, by sound and farsighted administrative planning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic worldview, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and in less than thirty years raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power. The quality of the Achaemenids as rulers began to disintegrate, however, after the death of Darius in 486. His son and successor, Xerxes, was chiefly occupied with suppressing revolts in Egypt and Babylonia. He also attempted to conquer the Greek Peloponnesus, but encouraged by a victory at Thermopylae, he overextended his forces and suffered overwhelming defeats at Salamis and Plataea. By the time his successor, Artaxerxes I, died in 424, the imperial court was beset by factionalism among the lateral family branches, a condition that persisted until the death in 330 of the last of the Achaemenids, Darius III, at the hands of his own subjects. The Achaemenids were enlightened despots who allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A satrap (governor) administered the region, a general supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a state secretary kept official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the central government. The twenty satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the  royal road  from Susa to Sardis, built by command of Darius. Relays of mounted couriers could reach the most remote areas in fifteen days. Despite the relative local independence afforded by the satrapy system, however, royal inspectors, the eyes and ears of the king, toured the empire and reported on local conditions, and the king maintained a personal bodyguard of 10,000 men, called the Immortals. The language in greatest use in the empire was Aramaic. Old Persian was the official language of the empire but was used only for inscriptions and royal proclamations. Darius revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage system. Trade was extensive, and under the  Achaemenids  there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities among the far reaches of the empire. As a result of this commercial activity, Persian words for typical items of trade became prevalent throughout the  Middle East  and eventually entered the English language; examples are, bazaar, shawl, sash, turquoise, tiara, orange, lemon, melon, peach, spinach, and asparagus. Trade was one of the empires main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute. Other accomplishments of Dariuss reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis, where vassal states would offer their yearly tribute at the festival celebrating the spring equinox. In its art and architecture, Persepolis reflected Dariuss percept ion of himself as the leader of conglomerates of people to whom he had given a new and single identity. The Achaemenid art and architecture found there is at once distinctive and also highly eclectic. The Achaemenids took the art forms and the cultural and religious traditions of many of the ancient Middle Eastern peoples and combined them into a single form. This Achaemenid artistic style is evident in the iconography of Persepolis, which celebrates the king and the office of the monarch. Envisioning a new world empire based on a fusion of Greek and Iranian culture and  ideals,  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Alexander the Great  of Macedon accelerated the disintegration of the Achaemenid Empire. He was first accepted as leader by the fractious Greeks in 336 B.C. and by 334 had advanced to Asia Minor, an Iranian satrapy. In quick  succession,  he took Egypt, Babylonia, and then, over the course of two years, the heart of the  Achaemenid EmpireSusa, Ecbatana, and Persepolisthe last of which he burned. Alexander married Roxana (Roshanak), the daughter of the most powerful of the Bactrian chiefs (Oxyartes, who revolted in present-day Tadzhikistan), and in 324 commanded his officers and 10,000 of his soldiers to marry Iranian women. The mass wedding, held at Susa, was a model of Alexanders desire to consummate the union of the Greek and Iranian peoples. These plans ended in 323 B.C., however, when Alexander was struck with fever and died in Babylon, leaving no heir. His empire was d ivided among four of his generals. Seleucus, one of these generals, who became ruler of Babylon in 312, gradually reconquered most of Iran. Under Seleucuss son, Antiochus I, many Greeks entered Iran, and Hellenistic motifs in art, architecture, and urban planning became prevalent. Although the Seleucids faced challenges from the  Ptolemies of Egypt  and from the growing power of Rome, the main threat came from the province of Fars (Partha to the Greeks). Arsaces (of the seminomadic Parni tribe), whose name was used by all subsequent Parthian kings, revolted against the Seleucid governor in 247 B.C. and established a dynasty, the Arsacids, or Parthians. During the second century, the Parthians were able to extend their rule to Bactria, Babylonia, Susiana, and Media, and, under Mithradates II (123-87 B.C.), Parthian conquests stretched from India to Armenia. After the victories of Mithradates II, the Parthians began to claim descent from both the Greeks and the Achaemenids. They spoke a language similar to that of the Achaemenids, used the Pahlavi script, and established an administrative system based on Achaemenid precedents. Meanwhile, Ardeshir, son of the priest Papak, who claimed descent from the legendary hero Sasan, had become the Parthian governor in the Achaemenid home province of Persis (Fars). In A.D. 224 he overthrew the last Parthian king and established the Sassanid dynasty, which was to last 400 years. The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids  [c, 550-330 B.C.;  with the capital at Ctesiphon. The Sassanids consciously sought to resuscitate Iranian traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence. Their rule was characterized by considerable centralization, ambitious urban planning, agricultural development, and technological improvements. Sassanid rulers adopted the title of shahanshah (king of kings), as sovereigns over numerous petty rulers, known as  shahrdars. Historians believe that society was divided into four classes: the priests, warriors, secretaries, and commoners. The royal princes, petty rulers, great landlords, and priests together constituted a privileged stratum, and the social system appears to have been fairly rigid. Sassanid rule and the system of social stratification were reinforced by Zoroastrianism, which became the state religion. The Zoroastrian priesthood became immensely powerful. The head of the priestly class, the  mobadan  mobad, along with the military commander, the  eran  spahbod, and the head of the bureaucracy, were among the great men of the state. Rome, with its capital at  Constantinople, had replaced Greece as Irans principal Western enemy, and hostilities between the two empires were frequent. Shahpur I (241-72), son and successor of Ardeshir, waged successful campaigns against the Romans and in 260 even took the emperor Valerian prisoner. Chosroes I (531-79), also known as Anushirvan the Just, is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. He reformed the tax system and reorganized the army and the bureaucracy, tying the army more closely to the central government than to local lords. His reign witnessed the rise of the  dihqans  (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system. Chosroes was a great builder, embellishing his capital, founding new towns, and constructing new buildings. Under his auspices, too, many books were brought from India and translated into Pahlavi. Some of these later found their way into the literature of the Islamic world. The reign of Chosroes II (591-628) was characterized by the wasteful splendor and lavishness of the court. Toward the end of his  reign  Chosroes IIs power declined. In renewed fighting with the Byzantines, he enjoyed initial successes, captured Damascus, and seized the Holy Cross in Jerusalem. But counterattacks by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius brought enemy forces deep into Sassanid territory. Years of warfare exhausted both the Byzantines and the Iranians. The later Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers. These factors facilitated the Arab invasion in the seventh century. Data as of December 1987Source: Library of Congress Country Studies Corrections *Jona Lendering  points out that a 547/546 date for the fall of Croesus is based on the  Nabonidus Chronicle  whose reading is uncertain. Rather than  Croesus  it may have been the ruler of Uratu. Lendering says the fall of Lydia should be listed as the 540s. **He also advises that cuneiform sources start to mention Cambyses as sole ruler in August 530, so the date of his death the following year is wrong.

Free Essays on I See Things

I See Things Most people would probably be terrified of the things I’ve seen. In fact, if anyone were scared after watching The Six Sense they would not want to be in my shoes seven years ago. Although my experience wasn’t as illustrated as the movie, it came close. I was about ten years old when scary dreams started to occur. In these dreams were devil-like images that would do negative things to my family and I. I would constantly tell my parents about the dreams, but the dreams would always come back. It came to the point that I couldn’t sleep because I was afraid of what I might dream. As the years past I began to realize that for some strange reason the devil was trying to keep me afraid. Over coming bad dreams was nothing compared to what I would encounter at the age of twelve. I started to see images while I was awoke. All the fears that I just got over were starting to resurface. I remember when my family had come to visit from out of town. Everyone was having a good time playing cards on the dinning room table. I sat down in a fold down chair about eight feet away from the table just watching. While sitting there I looked up at the chandelier above the table and started to see streaks that came in the formation of a hall. For a brief moment every thing around me disappeared except the streaks. There were two hands coming slowly towards me like they were welcoming my presents. Then as quickly as they appeared they vanished. I thought it nothing but my imagination so I just forgot about it. Things like â€Å"the hands incident† kept reappearing in a consistent pattern for about three years. Until after the day I saw the last and most disturbing image of them all. The sun was getting ready to set and end a very beautiful day. I was standing outside with my father and his fellow pastor. As I watched the sunset, an image started to appear very clear. It looked like a man walking on the street about t... Free Essays on I See Things Free Essays on I See Things I See Things Most people would probably be terrified of the things I’ve seen. In fact, if anyone were scared after watching The Six Sense they would not want to be in my shoes seven years ago. Although my experience wasn’t as illustrated as the movie, it came close. I was about ten years old when scary dreams started to occur. In these dreams were devil-like images that would do negative things to my family and I. I would constantly tell my parents about the dreams, but the dreams would always come back. It came to the point that I couldn’t sleep because I was afraid of what I might dream. As the years past I began to realize that for some strange reason the devil was trying to keep me afraid. Over coming bad dreams was nothing compared to what I would encounter at the age of twelve. I started to see images while I was awoke. All the fears that I just got over were starting to resurface. I remember when my family had come to visit from out of town. Everyone was having a good time playing cards on the dinning room table. I sat down in a fold down chair about eight feet away from the table just watching. While sitting there I looked up at the chandelier above the table and started to see streaks that came in the formation of a hall. For a brief moment every thing around me disappeared except the streaks. There were two hands coming slowly towards me like they were welcoming my presents. Then as quickly as they appeared they vanished. I thought it nothing but my imagination so I just forgot about it. Things like â€Å"the hands incident† kept reappearing in a consistent pattern for about three years. Until after the day I saw the last and most disturbing image of them all. The sun was getting ready to set and end a very beautiful day. I was standing outside with my father and his fellow pastor. As I watched the sunset, an image started to appear very clear. It looked like a man walking on the street about t...